Ensuring Ethereum’s Future: EIP-2334 and the Move to Quantum-Resistant Signatures

PQA Labs
6 min readAug 6, 2024

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Ethereum, the world’s second-largest cryptocurrency by market capitalization, is taking proactive steps to address the looming threat of quantum computing. As quantum computers advance, they pose a significant risk to the cryptographic foundations of many blockchain networks, including Ethereum. To mitigate this risk, Ethereum Improvement Proposal 2334 (EIP-2334) has been introduced, aiming to implement quantum-resistant signatures and secure the network’s future.

The Quantum Threat to Ethereum

Currently, per a report by Deloitte in 2022, over 65% of all Ether in circulation is vulnerable to quantum attacks, a significantly higher percentage compared to Bitcoin’s 25% exposure. This vulnerability stems from Ethereum’s use of the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA), which is susceptible to attacks by sufficiently powerful quantum computers.

Understanding Quantum Computing

Quantum computing represents a paradigm shift in computational power, utilizing the principles of quantum mechanics to perform calculations at unprecedented speeds. Unlike classical computers, which use bits as the smallest unit of data (0s and 1s), quantum computers use qubits, which can represent and process information in multiple states simultaneously. This capability allows quantum computers to solve complex problems faster than classical computers.

Implications for Cryptography

The most significant threat posed by quantum computers to blockchain technology lies in their ability to break widely used cryptographic algorithms. Shor’s algorithm, for example, can efficiently factor large integers and compute discrete logarithms, which are the mathematical foundations of many public-key cryptosystems, including ECDSA. If a quantum computer were to successfully execute Shor’s algorithm, it could derive private keys from public keys, compromising the security of Ethereum accounts and transactions.

EIP-2334: A Path to Quantum Resistance

EIP-2334 proposes the integration of quantum-resistant signature schemes into Ethereum’s protocol. The proposal suggests implementing a pre-compile for post-quantum signatures, allowing for a smooth transition to more secure cryptographic methods. Here are the key aspects of EIP-2334:

Signature Scheme Options

The proposal considers various post-quantum signature schemes, with a focus on those standardized by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Some of the most promising candidates include:

  • CRYSTALS-Kyber: A leading post-quantum cryptographic algorithm designed as a key encapsulation mechanism (KEM) based on the learning-with-errors (LWE) problem. Selected as an official post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standard by NIST, Kyber’s lightweight design allows for effective implementation across various platforms, making it an ideal choice for modern cryptographic applications in an era increasingly influenced by quantum computing.
  • CRYSTALS-Dilithium: A lattice-based signature scheme that offers strong security guarantees and efficient performance.
  • Falcon: Another lattice-based scheme that is noted for its compact signatures and fast verification times.
  • SPHINCS+: A hash-based signature scheme that provides a high level of security but typically has larger signature sizes.

Hybrid Approach

EIP-2334 recommends using a hybrid mode, combining a post-quantum algorithm with a classical algorithm. For example, pairing Dilithium (a post-quantum scheme) with Ed25519 (a classical scheme) could provide a robust solution that maintains compatibility with existing systems while gradually transitioning to quantum resistance.

Scalability Considerations

The implementation must account for the larger signature and public key sizes of post-quantum algorithms, which could impact Ethereum’s block sizes and transaction throughput. This necessitates careful planning and optimization to ensure that the network can handle the increased data load without sacrificing performance.

Challenges and Considerations

While EIP-2334 represents a crucial step towards quantum resistance, several challenges must be addressed:

Performance Impact

Post-quantum signatures typically require more computational resources and storage space. This increase in resource demand could lead to longer transaction times and higher fees, which may deter users from adopting the new technology. Developers will need to optimize the implementation to minimize these impacts.

Transition Period

Implementing quantum-resistant signatures will require a coordinated effort across the Ethereum ecosystem, including wallet providers, exchanges, and smart contract developers. A clear roadmap for the transition is essential to ensure that all stakeholders can adapt to the new signature schemes in a timely manner.

Backwards Compatibility

Ensuring that the new signature schemes remain compatible with existing Ethereum infrastructure is crucial for a smooth transition. This includes maintaining compatibility with existing wallets, smart contracts, and decentralized applications (dApps) that rely on ECDSA signatures.

Ethereum Smart Contract Breach Issue

If an Ethereum smart contract is breached, a hard fork and self-destruct mechanism is one of the possible solutions to address the issue, although it is a controversial and complex decision.

Self-Destruct Mechanism:

If a smart contract includes a self-destruct function and it is invoked, the contract will forward all its balance to a specified address, and then its code and storage will be cleared. This means no more interactions with the contract will be possible, effectively rendering it inactive.

Hard Fork:

In the event of an Ethereum smart contract breach, a hard fork is a possible but controversial solution. Implementing a hard fork in response to an Ethereum smart contract breach can be problematic, as it undermines the principle of immutability that is central to blockchain technology. This approach can set a concerning precedent, suggesting that transactions can be reversed based on community decisions, which may erode trust in the system, not to mention that such action can divide the community and create market instability.

Ongoing Research

As quantum computing evolves, continuous research and updates to the chosen post-quantum algorithms may be necessary. The Ethereum community must remain vigilant and adaptable to incorporate the latest advancements in quantum-resistant cryptography.

The Road Ahead

The implementation of EIP-2334 is a critical step in securing Ethereum’s future against quantum threats. However, it is part of a broader strategy that includes several initiatives:

Quantum-Safe Wallets

Development of wallet solutions that incorporate quantum-resistant features is essential. Wallet providers must begin integrating post-quantum signature schemes to ensure users’ funds remain secure in a future where quantum computing is prevalent.

Smart Contract Upgrades

Smart contracts will also need to transition to quantum-resistant cryptography. This requires developers to update their contracts to support new signature schemes while ensuring that existing functionalities remain intact.

Community Education

Raising awareness about the importance of quantum resistance and guiding users through the transition process is vital. The Ethereum community should engage in educational initiatives, webinars, and workshops to inform users about the risks of quantum computing and the steps being taken to mitigate them.

The Importance of Timely Action

The urgency of addressing quantum threats cannot be overstated. Experts predict that practical quantum computers capable of breaking current cryptographic standards could emerge within the next decade. Therefore, the Ethereum community must act swiftly to implement EIP-2334 and other quantum-resistant measures.

The Role of Governance

The Ethereum governance model plays a crucial role in the successful implementation of EIP-2334. Community consensus is essential for adopting new proposals and ensuring that all stakeholders are aligned in their efforts to enhance the network’s security. Regular discussions, forums, and feedback mechanisms will help facilitate this process.

Other PQC Blockchain Efforts

Abelian is a Layer 1, Proof-of-Work blockchain network that is quantum-resistant. The chain adopts aforementioned NIST-standardized post-quantum cryptography including CRYSTALS-Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium to ensure the security of digital signatures and private keys. The Abelian chain is post-quantum from its genesis block so it does not have any legacy issue nor the concerns of the need for a hardfork. In addition, Abelian provides a platform that supports quantum-resistant blockchain application development and operation within its ecosystem.

Conclusion

EIP-2334 represents Ethereum’s proactive approach to addressing the quantum computing threat. By implementing quantum-resistant signatures, Ethereum aims to safeguard its network and user assets against future quantum attacks. While challenges remain, this initiative demonstrates the Ethereum community’s commitment to long-term security and adaptability in the face of evolving technological landscapes.

As the proposal moves through the implementation process, it will be crucial for all stakeholders in the Ethereum ecosystem to stay informed and contribute to this significant upgrade, as the success of EIP-2334 will be a big step towards securing Ethereum’s future as it prepares for the post-quantum era.

Finally, it is important to note that while Ethereum remains a popular choice for smart contracts, for developers and users concerned about long-term security in the face of quantum computing advancements, there are other quality alternatives for post-quantum projects like Abelian. Such projects aim to provide enhanced security by implementing quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms, potentially offering better protection against future quantum attacks on blockchain systems. By exploring these post-quantum alternatives, developers can future-proof their decentralized applications and smart contracts, ensuring they remain secure even as quantum computing technology progresses.

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PQA Labs

To secure the future by pioneering post-quantum solutions that safeguard digital privacy and security for all